Before 1987, credit card issuers charged nearly every customer the same interest rate and annual fee. Richard Fairbank and Nigel Morris set out to use demographic data and mathematical models to price each customer’s risk, and consulted with Oracle on building the data systems before pitching banks, which mostly rejected them. In 1988 Signet Bank of Richmond, Virginia took them in. Their 1991 balance transfer campaign targeted reliable payers carrying debt at other banks with lower custom rates, and it worked so well that Signet spun the card unit off in 1994, briefly as OakStone Financial, then as Capital One, with Fairbank as CEO and Morris as COO.

As a monoline card issuer, Capital One diversified into secured cards and auto loans, expanded to Canada and the UK, and bought deposit-rich banks: Hibernia National Bank in 2005 for nearly $5 billion and North Fork Bank in 2006 for over $13 billion. North Fork’s GreenPoint Mortgage unit was shut in August 2007 with almost 2,000 jobs lost, and the company took $3.56 billion in TARP funds, repaying them by the following June. Later deals included Chevy Chase Bank, ING Direct for $9 billion, HSBC’s U.S. card business, Discover in May 2025 and Brex in 2026. The 2019 breach exposed data on 106 million people, and in April 2026 a judge approved a $425 million settlement over legacy 360 savings rates.

• The 2012 $210 million penalty was the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s first public enforcement action.
• 2014 terms of use claimed the right to modify caller ID and to visit customers’ homes and workplaces.
• The breach came through a misconfigured Capital One web application exploited with server-side request forgery, and disclosure was delayed 12 days.
• Marketing totaling $13 billion featured Alec Baldwin, Jennifer Garner and DragonForce, and the Capital One Arena naming rights.
• In March 2021 the bank closed about 300 accounts tied to Donald Trump, and a judge dismissed the resulting suit in March 2026.