On March 13, 1963, Phoenix police officers Carroll Cooley and Wilfred Young arrested Ernesto Miranda on circumstantial evidence in the kidnapping and rape of an 18 year old woman. After two hours of questioning he signed a confession on a form claiming full knowledge of his legal rights, though no one had told him he could remain silent or see a lawyer. Public defender Alvin Moore objected, but Miranda was convicted and sentenced to 20 to 30 years, and in 1965 the Arizona Supreme Court affirmed, noting he never asked for an attorney. Attorney John Paul Frank took the case to the U.S. Supreme Court, and on June 13, 1966, Chief Justice Earl Warren’s 5 to 4 opinion held that custodial interrogation is inherently coercive without warnings.
Warren pointed to the FBI, which already warned suspects of their rights. Justice Byron White warned in dissent that the rule would return killers and rapists to the streets, and Richard Nixon campaigned against it. Arizona retried Miranda in 1967 without the confession, and Twila Hoffman testified that he had confessed to her, so he was convicted again. Paroled in 1972, he sold autographed Miranda warning cards. On January 31, 1976, he was stabbed to death in a bar fight, and the suspect invoked his right to silence and was released. The episode follows the rule through Congress’s 1968 attempt to overturn it and Dickerson v. United States in 2000, in which William Rehnquist upheld it.
- Early FBI data showed a drop in clearance rates, but later studies found little long term effect on solving cases.
- The 1984 public safety exception lets police ask about threats like a hidden gun without warnings.
- Missouri v. Seibert in 2004 ended the question first, warn later two step technique.
- Berghuis v. Thompkins in 2010 held that a suspect must invoke silence out loud, after a man stayed mostly silent for nearly three hours.
- Vega v. Tekoh in 2022 ruled 6 to 3 that officers cannot be sued for damages for failing to give the warning.
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