Gulag was never a Russian word for prison. It was an acronym for a government office, the main directorate of correctional labor camps, run by the secret police from the 1930s. This episode examines the machinery behind the name: the tsarist exile system that once held Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin, the early Bolshevik camps built to quarantine political enemies, and the monastery island of Solovki, where an inmate named Naftaly Frenkel proposed tying each prisoner’s food ration to the share of a labor quota he fulfilled.

Under Stalin the camps became an engine for mining gold, felling timber, and building canals and railways in places like Kolyma. Arrests ran on quotas of their own, driven by the vague Article 58 and three-man troikas that issued sentences in minutes. The episode asks whether the system ever made economic sense, follows it through the catastrophic war years after June 1941, and ends with the opening of the archives and the argument over how many people it actually killed.

• Frenkel’s nourishment scale cut rations for anyone who missed a quota, which left them weaker the next day. He was promoted from prisoner to camp commander.
• Before the war the camps produced 46 percent of Soviet nickel, 76 percent of its tin, and a quarter of its timber, yet the average inmate was half as productive as a free worker.
• A quarter of the entire camp population died in the winter of 1941, and roughly half of all Gulag deaths fell between 1941 and 1943.
• Archives suggest about 18 million people passed through the camps between 1930 and 1953, with 1.5 to 1.7 million recorded deaths.
• Commanders judged on mortality rates released roughly a million dying prisoners early so their deaths would not appear on the camp ledger.