Vespasian came from a family of mule traders and tax collectors — the least glamorous origins of any Roman emperor. He seized power during the Year of the Four Emperors, restored order after Nero’s catastrophic reign, and rebuilt Rome with the money he squeezed from every corner of the empire, including a tax on public urinals. When critics objected, he held a coin to his nose and said, “Money doesn’t smell.”

This episode traces Vespasian from his humble Sabine origins through the Jewish War, the civil war that made him emperor, and the Flavian building program — including the Colosseum — that turned Nero’s wasteland back into the capital of the world.

• Vespasian’s modest origins and his military career in Britain and Judea
• The Jewish War, the siege of Jerusalem, and the destruction of the Second Temple
• The Year of the Four Emperors and Vespasian’s seizure of power from the East
• The Colosseum, the urine tax, and the fiscal ruthlessness that rebuilt Rome after Nero