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In October 1969 U.S. forces were secretly placed on a high nuclear alert under the Madman strategy, meant to convince Moscow the president might do anything to win in Vietnam, while Soviet pilots were flying combat sorties against American aircraft. The war’s roots lay in the First Indochina War, which ended when the Viet Minh hauled dismantled artillery through the jungle and defeated France at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. With the country partitioned, the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution let Lyndon B. Johnson wage war without a formal declaration, justified by the domino theory. Operation Rolling Thunder dropped more bomb tonnage than all theaters of World War II combined, yet the agrarian North moved factories underground and fought on.

American search and destroy missions measured success in body counts, while communist forces used the Cu Chi tunnels and grabbed the enemy by the belt, fighting too close for artillery or napalm. The 1968 Tet Offensive, which included a breach of the U.S. Embassy compound in Saigon, was a military defeat for the attackers but shattered trust at home. Under Nixon, Vietnamization armed the ARVN as troops withdrew, while incursions into Cambodia and secret bombing in Laos widened the war. Morale collapsed amid drug abuse and fragging. After the 1972 Easter Offensive and the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, which left North Vietnamese troops in the South, Saigon fell in April 1975.

• U.S. troop levels peaked in 1969 at over 543,000.
• About 1.1 million soldiers died in total, including over 58,000 Americans.
• Civilian deaths are estimated at 405,000 to 2 million.
• Around 250,000 boat people are estimated to have died at sea.
• The Vietnam Syndrome left a generation of American leaders wary of overseas intervention.